Vroom 1964 Expectancy Theory Pdf Reader
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Facebook. Twitter0Human motivation is a complex and well studied field that has broad roots in a diverse collection of academic disciplines including psychology, sociology, education, political science, and economics. In simplified terms, motivation can be defined as, “what causes people to behave as they do” (Denhardt et al., 2008, p.
Unfortunately, this simple definition hides the dynamic intricacies of the motivation literature.There tends to be a general consensus as to the definition of motivation which reflects that: (1) motivation is goal directed (Lawler, 1994), (2) motivation outlines the achievement and pursuit of goals (Denhardt et al., 2008) and (3) motivation is environmentally dependent (Pettinger, 1996). Campbell and Pritchard (1976) define motivation as being the set of psychological processes that cause the initiation, direction, intensity, and persistence of behavior.Because motivation is so difficult to define, it may help in determining what motivation is not. Denhardt, Denhardt and Aristigueta (2008) outline four examples. Motivation is not: (1) directly observable, (2) the same as satisfaction, (3) always conscious, and (4) directly controllable.Motivation is not directly observable. “Motivation is an internal state that causes people to behave in a particular way to accomplish particular goals and purposes.
It is possible to observe the outward manifestations of motivation but not motivation itself” (Denhardt et al., 2008, p. For instance, the acquisition of money may be an extrinsic motivator, but it is simply the manifestation of the internal drive to meet intrinsic needs like purchasing food, paying rent for shelter, or acquiring high social status.Motivation is not the same as satisfaction. “Put simply, satisfaction is past oriented, whereas motivation is future oriented” (Denhardt et al., 2008, p. While a worker may be very satisfied by the compensation of their job, there are countless instances where these workers are not entirely motivated to continue doing what they (Igalens & Roussel, 1999).Motivation is not always conscious. Unconscious motivation is quite central to Sigmund Freud’s theories of human behavior. Freud posits that most human behavior is the result of unconscious repressed memories, impulses, and desires that influence and drive many human behaviors (Freud, 1976).
A manifestation of this idea is the “Freudian slip” where an accidental word slip actually betrays true internal feelings and intentions.Motivation is not directly controllable. “Motivation is not something that people do to others.
Motivation occurs within people’s minds and hearts. Managers can influence the motivational process, but they cannot control it” (Denhardt et al., 2008, p.
147).The purpose of this paper is to give a detailed review of the literature of motivation in a thematic and quasi-chronological fashion. This will permit the reader to gain a thorough understanding of the many facets of motivation theories in modern literature.
A cursory view of the literature will show that there are two central categories of motivation theories: content and process theories.Content theories are centered around the assumption that individuals all share a similar set of human needs and that we are all motivated to satisfy those needs (e.g., Maslow, 1946; McGregor, 1957; Herzberg, 1968; Alderfer, 1969; McClelland, 1988). Process theories are centered around the rational cognitive process and say that while most people may have similar needs, the importance and placement of those needs is different for everyone; that it is something highly subjective (e.g., Skinner, 1935; Festinger, 1957; Adams, 1963; Vroom, 1967; Porter & Lawler, 1968; Kahler, 1975; Locke et al., 1990).The Birth of Modern Motivation TheoriesModern theories of motivation are considered to have grown out of the Elton Mayo-led study of worker output at the Western Electric Company’s Hawthorn plant near Chicago. Famously referred to as the Hawthorn studies, Mayo and a previous team of researchers studied the productivity of workers under changing conditions in temperature, humidity, and illumination (Pennock, 1930).
Vroom's Model Of Expectancy Theory
Conventional wisdom at the time was that external working conditions were directly responsible for worker productivity (Taylor, 2008). This principle, known as scientific management, was championed by Fredrick Taylor in 1911 and is still a powerful reference for modern managers.Mayo’s team, consisting of Fritz Roethlisberger, George Homans, and T.N Whitehead, found that contrary to scientific management principles, “interactional variables make the difference in motivating people - things like attention paid to workers as individuals, workers’ control over their own work, differences between individuals’ needs, the willingness of managers to listen, group norms, and direct feedback” (Ott et al., 2007, pp. The Mayo team’s findings directly challenged the principles of scientific management, suggesting that perhaps people could not be so easily fit to organizations (Roethlisberger, 1965). Rather, considering and understanding the personal and social needs of workers was just as influential, if not more so, than external working conditions. This opened the door to a flood of new ideas regarding motivation, organization theory, and human psychology.Types of Motivation: Intrinsic and ExtrinsicBy looking deeper into the multiple theories of motivation, one will find that there are two basic types of motivation: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
Vroom Expectancy Theory Examples
Intrinsically motivated behaviors are seen when there is no other apparent reward except the activity itself (Deci, 1975). Malone and Lepper (1987) have defined it as “what people will do without external inducement.” Examples of intrinsic motivation are hunger, a sense of duty, altruism, and a desire to feel appreciated. Extrinsically motivated behaviors are those where the controlling mechanism is easily seen (Deci, 1975). Examples of extrinsic motivation are money, rules and laws, and the physical environment.Deci and Ryan (1985) state that intrinsically motivated behaviors are innate and can result in creativity, flexibility, and spontaneity while extrinsically motivated behaviors are generally done as a consequence of pressure and result in low self-esteem and anxiety. However, even the mere identification of intrinsic/extrinsic behaviors has been a topic of debate (Scott, 1975; Guzzo, 1979). Despite this, the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is an important one given their impact upon each other.There has been much research into the effects that intrinsic and extrinsic motivation have upon each other, especially in the field of education.
It has been found that many students do not find studying to be intrinsically rewarding (Csikszentmihalyi & Larson, 1984) and that extrinsic motivation has the exact opposite effect on student achievement than is desired (Lepper & Hodell, 1989). In fact, Cameron and Pierce (1994) have shown that when individuals are asked to complete a task, mere verbal praise after successfully completing the task increases intrinsic motivation.
Contrary to popular belief, the use of expected extrinsic rewards for completing the task actually produces a negative motivational effect for future task completion once the reward is removed. However, Cameron and Pierce also found that reinforcement, unlike reward, does not harm intrinsic motivation (Cameron & Pierce, 1994).Taking these findings into the realm of motivation in organizations, we must now be cognizant of the fact that by simply applying extrinsic motivation methods without also addressing intrinsic factors, managers could be doing more harm than good. Also, managers must understand that by simply rewarding workers through extrinsic means, they are actually perpetuating a destructive cycle of continual reward and decreased intrinsic motivation. It is important to keep this in mind as we cover the myriad of theories and needs outlined below.Content Theories of MotivationShortly after Fritz Roethlisberger published his 1941 book Management and Morale, outlining in detail the Hawthorn studies, Abraham Maslow published “A Theory of Human Motivation” in 1943. Maslow is considered the father of needs based motivation theory and his theory is “one of the best-known and most widely cited works on motivation” (Denhardt et al., 2008, p. 148).Maslow (Maslow, 1946) proposed a five level hierarchy of needs which he outlined as necessary for the achievement of a completely satisfied individual; or in his terms, a self-actualized being. Those needs are: physiological, safety, love, esteem, and self-actualization.Physiological needs can be described as the most basic of human needs; those needed for human survival.
These include breathing, water, food, and shelter. Safety needs are those needs which create stability and predictability in our lives: personal and financial security, health and well-being, and employment and access to resources. Love/belonging needs are centered around social interactions and interpersonal relationships: friendship, family, and intimacy. Esteem needs reflect our desires for respect, self-esteem and the need to belong.Finally, self-actualization is the state which the individual achieves when all other needs have been meet.
Maslow identifies fifteen attributes that self-actualized individuals experience, and thus the exact definition of being “self-actualized” is difficult to summarize.